climate change glossary

This climate and energy glossary aims to shed light on some of the more complex terms used by policy makers...and on this site. The glossary also tries to explain some terms that are specific to the EU and EU legislation. It is not exhaustive though, so we would appreciate your comments in order to expand or improve the glossary. Click on the letters to search for the term you are looking for.

A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | Q | R | S | T | U | V | W | X | Y | Z

A

Aerosols
A collection of airborne minute particles (solid or liquid), typically between 0.01 and 10 micrometers (µm), that resides in the atmosphere for at least several hours. Aerosols may be of either natural or manmade origin. They can influence the climate in two ways: directly, through scattering and absorbing radiation, and indirectly, by acting as condensation nuclei for cloud formation or modifying the optical properties and lifetime of clouds. The term has also come to be associated, erroneously, with the propellant used in "aerosol sprays." See also sulphate aerosols.

See: http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/Aerosols/

Agrofuels
Alternative name for biofuels produced from agricultural crops. Biofuel is a general term for fuel that is derived from biomass - living or recently dead organic matter. In general it is made from sugar, starch, vegetable oils or animal fats. Examples include bio-ethanol from energy crops such as sugar cane or corn, or biodiesel from oil-based crops like palm oil, and rape seed.

The problems associated with the deliberate cultivation of crops for fuel have now been widely acknowledged. The overall environmental benefits are often limited or non-existent due to problems associated with deforestation, land degradation and the energy-intensive refining processes. In addition, agrofuels have been demonstrated to have negative social impacts, such as on land rights. The conversion of agricultural land for the cultivation of crops for fuel has also had a damaging impact on food security, with shortages and price spikes creating problems particularly in developing countries.

See: http://www.corporateeurope.org/docs/AgrofuelsRealityCheck.pdf, for criticism of agrofuels, by several NGOs

Albedo
The extent to which an object or surface reflects light from the sun (solar radiation); the reflection is a fraction often expressed as a percentage. Snow covered surfaces have a high albedo, reflecting a high proportion of the incoming light; the albedo of soils ranges from high to low; vegetation covered surfaces and oceans have a low albedo. The Earth's albedo varies mainly through varying cloudiness, snow, ice, leaf area and land cover changes.

See: http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/essay_serreze.html

Allocation
Under an emissions trading (cap and trade) scheme, permits to emit the regulated gases can initially be 'allocated' for free, depending on how the scheme is designed. The alternative is to auction permits in an initial market offering. The allocation is usually distributed either under a ‘grandfathering’ approach based on past emissions in a base year or an ‘updating’ approach based on the more recent emissions.

Alternating current - AC
AC is a term used to describe a flow of electricity that constantly changes direction between positive and negative sides (the converse being DC). AC is the standard form in which electricity is currently delivered to users. However, it has disadvantages, particularly for transmitting large amounts of power. Simply increasing the current leads to magnified power loss during transmission, so it is more advantageous to instead increase the voltage to transmit large amounts. However, high voltages also have disadvantages, notably the increased insulation required, and the generally increased difficulty in their safe handling.

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B

Barrel (oil)
In the petroleum industry, a barrel is 42 U.S. gallons. One barrel of oil has an energy content of 6 million British thermal units. It takes one barrel of oil to make enough gasoline to drive an average car from Los Angeles to San Francisco and back (at 18 miles per gallon over the 700-mile round trip).

Base load
Term used to describe the lowest level of power production needed during a season or year i.e. the guaranteed predicable demand for power (the converse being peak load). Different power generating sources are more suitable for different loads.

Base Year
Targets for reducing greenhouse emissions are often defined in relation to a base year. In the Kyoto Protocol, 1990 is the base year for most countries for the major greenhouse gases; 1995 can be used as the base year for some of the minor GHGs. Percentage reductions targets are defined in relation to this base year, so the EU target of a "20% reduction by 2020" is a short-hand for "20% less emissions than in 1990 by 2020" for the base year 1990.

See: http://unfccc.int/ghg_data/kp_data_unfccc/base_year_data/items/4354.php

Baseline
The baseline estimates of population, GDP, energy use and hence resultant greenhouse gas emissions without climate policies, determine how big a reduction is required, and also what the impacts of climate change without policy will be.

Baseline emissions
The emissions that would occur without policy intervention (part of a "business-as-usual" scenario). Baseline estimates are needed to determine the effectiveness of emissions mitigation strategies.

Battery
A device that stores energy, which can be released at a later point through the production of electric current by chemical action.

Biochar
Biochar is charcoal created by pyrolysis of biomass (the chemical decomposition of biomass through heating). The resulting charcoal-like material can be used as a soil improver to create terra preta and is a form of carbon capture and storage i.e. to remove carbon dioxide (CO₂) from the atmosphere. Charcoal is a stable solid and rich in carbon content, and thus, can be used to lock carbon in the soil. Biochar is of increasing interest because of concerns about mitigation of global warming being caused by emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases. However, concerns have also been raised about biochar from certain biomass sources (see biofuels).

Biofuels
Biofuel is a general term for fuel that is derived from biomass - living or recently dead organic matter. In general it is made from sugar, starch, vegetable oils or animal fats. Examples include bio-ethanol from energy crops such as sugar cane or corn, or biodiesel from oil-based energy crops like palm oil, and rape seed.
The problems associated with the deliberate cultivation of crops for fuel have now been widely acknowledged, although not all biofuels are produced this way. The overall environmental benefits are often limited or non-existent due to problems associated with deforestation, land degradation and the energy-intensive refining processes. In addition, these 'agrofuels' have been demonstrated to have negative social impacts, such as on land rights. The conversion of agricultural land for the cultivation of crops for fuel has also had a damaging impact on food security, with shortages and price spikes creating problems particularly in developing countries.

http://www.corporateeurope.org/docs/AgrofuelsRealityCheck.pdf, for criticism of agrofuels, by several NGOs

Biomass
The total mass of living organisms in a given area or volume; recently dead plant material is often included as dead biomass.
Biomass can be used as an energy source, with the energy being released through combustion or alternatively converted into a liquid fuel (see biofuel).

Biomass converter
A technical system that converts organic feedstock - biomass - into a technically useable energy carrier.

Bunker fuel

Fuel supplied to ships and aircraft for international transportation, irrespective of the flag of the carrier, consisting primarily of residual and distillate fuel oil for ships and jet fuel for aircraft. Bunker fuels are often more polluting than other fuel sources. Their use in international transportation has meant they are usually exempt from taxation unlike standard fuels.

C

Cap and Trade
Cap-and-trade is one method that can be used to regulate the amount of pollution emitted into the atmosphere. The government or relevant authority sets a cap on pollution, limiting the amount that companies or other groups are allowed to release. The government or relevant authority then issues credits, which allow companies to each pollute a certain amount as long as the aggregate pollution equals less than the set cap. Since some companies can reduce pollution more cheaply than others, the group engages in trading these permits. Companies that can cheaply reduce pollution sell permits to companies that cannot easily afford to reduce pollution. The companies that sell the permits are rewarded while those that purchase permits must pay for their negative impact. Applied to climate change, this system would theoretically reduce carbon emissions at the lowest total cost.

See: http://thegoldenspiral.org/2009/03/02/cap-and-trade-explained/ for a quick diagram that explains it.

http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/mechanisms/emissions_trading/items/2731.php on emissions trading under the Kyoto protocol

http://ec.europa.eu/environment/climat/emission/index_en.htm for the EU emissions trading scheme

Capacity (Electric utility)
The maximum amount of electricity that a generating unit, power plant or utility can produce under specified conditions. Capacity is measured in megawatts.

Carbon credit/permit
Carbon credit/permit is used in emission trading schemes (see emissions trading), with a permit or credit giving the owner the right to emit a specified amount of the regulated pollutant (typically one tonne of CO2).

Carbon cycle
All parts (reservoirs) and flows of carbon. The cycle is usually thought of as four main reservoirs of carbon interconnected by pathways of exchange. The reservoirs are the atmosphere, terrestrial biosphere (usually includes freshwater systems), oceans, and sediments (includes fossil fuels). The annual movements of carbon (the carbon exchanges between reservoirs) occur because of various chemical, physical, geological, and biological processes. The ocean contains the largest pool of carbon near the surface of the Earth, but most of that pool is not involved with rapid exchange with the atmosphere.

See: http://unfccc.int/essential_background/feeling_the_heat/items/2903.php for the official UNFCCC page

http://www.nasa.gov/centers/langley/news/researchernews/rn_carboncycle.html for a graphic of carbon cycle

Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
A naturally occurring gas, also a by-product of burning fossil fuels and biomass, as well as land-use changes and other industrial processes. It is the principal anthropogenic greenhouse gas that affects the earth's radiative balance. It is the reference gas against which other greenhouse gases are measured and therefore has a Global Warming Potential of 1.

(See greenhouse gases)

Carbon dioxide equivalent
A metric measure used to compare the emissions from various greenhouse gases based upon their global warming potential (GWP). Carbon dioxide equivalents are commonly expressed as "million metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalents (MMTCO2Eq)." The carbon dioxide equivalent for a gas is derived by multiplying the tons of the gas by the associated GWP.

MMTCO2Eq = (million metric tons of a gas) * (GWP of the gas)
See greenhouse gas, global warming potential.

Carbon offsetting
Offsetting, or carbon offsetting, refers to the (highly contentious) principle that a company or individual can mitigate or even entirely neutralise the effects of their CO₂ emissions by investing in programmes that promote emissions reductions (typically in
Developing countries where it is cheaper to deliver these reductions).
It implies buying credits in (or part-funding) a project that will lead to the prevention or removal of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere (for example, planting trees or building renewable energy power stations to avoid the construction of coal ones). Carbon offsetting can be used by individuals, companies or governments. Instead of actually delivering emissions reductions required of them (for example under legislation), the purchaser can offset the required reductions by buying credits in emissions reductions projects elsewhere. The UNFCCC Kyoto Protocol included two offsetting instruments ('mechanisms'): the Clean Development Mechanism and Joint Implementation projects.

See: http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/mechanisms/items/1673.php on the Kyoto Protocol 'mechanisms'

Carbon sinks
Carbon sinks are processes, activities or mechanisms that remove more greenhouse gases from the atmosphere than they release. Both the terrestrial biosphere and oceans can act as carbon sinks. Tropical forests have become an iconic example of sinks.

See: http://www.nasa.gov/centers/langley/news/researchernews/rn_carboncycle.html for a graphic of carbon cycle

Carbon source
Any process or activity that results in the net release of greenhouse gases, aerosols, or precursors of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.

See: http://www.nasa.gov/centers/langley/news/researchernews/rn_carboncycle.html for a graphic of carbon cycle

Carbon Tax
A tax on the carbon content of oil, coal, and gas that discourages the use of fossil fuels, with the overall aims of reducing carbon dioxide emissions.

Carbon capture and storage (CCS)
The process of capturing greenhouse gas pollution from and storing it underground instead of releasing it into the atmosphere. Current proposals for CCS envisage its application primarily for coal or gas power plants or other industrial installations. The technology is not yet commercially available and concerns persist about its potential impact on health, safety and the environment. Despite the fact that it is not yet commercially available - and its future is far from certain - many energy utilities are seeking to use it as means to justify expansion of coal-fired power plants now (in advance of the technology being available), despite the urgent need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)
Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) is one of three market mechanisms established by the Kyoto Protocol. The CDM is designed to promote sustainable development in developing countries and assist industrialised countries in meeting their greenhouse gas emissions reduction commitments. It enables industrialised countries (or actors in industrialised countries) to give funding towards emission reduction projects in developing countries and to receive credits for reductions achieved. These credits can be used to offset reductions that the countries or actors would otherwise be required to make domestically.

See: http://cdm.unfccc.int/index.html - the UNFCCC official page

Climate feedback
An interaction mechanism between processes in the climate system is called a climate feedback, when the result of an initial process triggers changes in a second process that in turn influences the initial one. A positive feedback intensifies the original process, and a negative feedback reduces it. An example of a positive feedback is the release of methane emissions through the warming of an ocean.

Climate lag
The delay that occurs in climate change as a result of some factor that changes only very slowly. For example, the effects of releasing more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere may not be known for some time because a large fraction is dissolved in the ocean and only released to the atmosphere many years later.

Climate sensitivity
The average global air surface temperature change resulting from a doubling of pre-industrial atmospheric CO₂ concentrations. The IPCC estimates climate sensitivity at 1.5-4.5^oC (2.7-8.1^oF).

Climate variability
Climate variability refers to variations in the mean state and other statistics (such as standard deviations, the occurrence of extremes, etc.) of the climate on all temporal and spatial scales beyond that of individual weather events. Variability may be due to natural internal processes within the climate system (internal variability), or to variations in natural or anthropogenic external forcing (external variability). See also: Climate change.

Coal power plant
A coal power plant converts the heat of coal combustion into electricity, for instance through a steam turbine. Electricity generation through coal combustion has the highest carbon footprint of the generation technologies. It produces 1000g CO2/kWh, compared to 400g CO2/kWh for gas or 5g CO2/kWh for wind. The energy sector is responsible for around 40% of total CO2 emissions Europe, with coal power plants accounting for two-thirds of the total CO2 emissions produced by the electricity sector in the EU.

Combined Heat and Power (CHP) or Cogeneration
A system that recovers the heat produced as a by-product of electricity generation instead of simply venting it via cooling towers. This recovered heat can then be used for domestic or industrial heating close to the plant.

See:http://www.greenpeace.org.uk/climate/solutions/combined-heat-and-power-chp

Compact fluorescent light (CFL) bulbs
CFL bulbs are a type of energy-saving light bulb, which are vastly more energy efficient than traditional incandescent bulbs (Edison bulbs). CFL bulbs use 5 times less energy than traditional incandescent bulbs (which only convert 5% of their energy input into light, wasting the rest). CFL bulbs can also last up to 10 times as long, having a life of up to 12,000 hours. One bulb can yield to up to €12 in savings on utilities bills per year.
CFL bulbs contain miniscule amounts of mercury (a toxic substance), which means they must be recycled, as is standard with electrical appliances. Studies have shown CFL bulbs result in significantly less mercury being released into the atmosphere due to the greatly decreased consumption of electricity (mercury emissions being a by-product of some forms of power generation).

Conference of the Parties (CoP)
The supreme body of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). It comprises more than 180 nations that have ratified the Convention. Its first session was held in Berlin, Germany, in 1995 and it is expected to continue meeting on a yearly basis. The COP's role is to promote and review the implementation of the Convention. It will periodically review existing commitments in light of the Convention's objective, new scientific findings, and the effectiveness of national climate change programs. The 3rd COP in Kyoto, Japan, led to the adoption of the Kyoto Protocol, which included among other things targets for greenhouse gas reductions for industrialised (Annex 1) countries.

See: http://unfccc.int/essential_background/convention/convention_bodies/items/2629.php the UNFCCC official page

Concentrated Solar Power (CSP)
Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. The concentrated light is then used as a heat source for a conventional power plant. A wide range of concentrating technologies exists; the most developed are the solar trough, parabolic dish and solar power tower. These methods vary in the way they track the sun and focus light. In all these systems a working fluid (eg water) is heated by the concentrated sunlight and is then used for power generation or energy storage.

See: Solar thermal electricity industry http://www.estelasolar.eu/

D

Dangerous climate change
A level of climate change that will have severe impacts on societies, economies and the natural world. The EU defines dangerous climate change as rise in average global surface temperatures of 2ºC or more (above pre-industrial revolution average surface temperatures) in line with the findings of the UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).

See: http://unfccc.int/essential_background/feeling_the_heat/items/2905.php for the UNFCCC's information on climate change impacts

Deforestation
Practices or processes that result in the conversion of forested lands for non-forest uses. This is often cited as one of the major causes of the enhanced greenhouse effect for two reasons: 1) the burning or decomposition of the wood releases carbon dioxide; and 2) trees that once removed carbon dioxide from the atmosphere through the process of photosynthesis are no longer present. By some estimates, deforestation accounts for as much as 20% of greenhouse gas emissions.

See: http://www.boell.de/oekologie/klima/klima-energie-1993.html for the importance of deforestation to climate change.

Desertification
Desertification means land degradation in arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid areas resulting from various factors, including climatic variations and human activities.
The UNCCD (The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification) defines land degradation as a reduction or loss, in arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid areas, of the biological or economic productivity and complexity of rain-fed cropland, irrigated cropland, or range, pasture, forest, and woodlands resulting from land uses or from a process or combination of processes, including processes arising from human activities and habitation patterns, such as: (i) soil erosion caused by wind and/or water; (ii) deterioration of the physical, chemical and biological or economic properties of soil; and (iii) long-term loss of natural vegetation.

See: http://www.unccd.int/ UNCCD official website

Direct current - DC
DC is a term used to describe a flow of electricity that is unidirectional - and does not fluctuate (the converse being AC). High voltage DC is used to transport large amounts of electricity from remote generation (as it is more efficient than AC for large loads over long distances) or to interconnect AC power grids. DC is becoming increasingly considered as a viable option for distribution infrastructure, particularly for capitalising on the potential of large energy loads from remote areas - such as offshore wind farms.

See: Alternating Current (AC) and http://www.trec-uk.org.uk/elec_eng/grid.htm (HVAC and HVDC discussion)

Distribution system
The substations, transformers and lines that convey electricity from high-power transmission lines to ultimate consumers.

E

Eco-design requirements
EU eco-design requirements aim to increase the energy savings (efficiency) from consumer appliances (energy-using products) running on electricity and make them more environmentally-friendly. The European Commission, working with experts from national governments, is tasked with determining the standards on a product-by-product basis under the EU's Energy-using Products Directive, subject to the assent of the European parliament and EU governments.

See: http://ec.europa.eu/energy/efficiency/ecodesign/eco_design_en.htm the European Commission official page

Effort sharing
Effort sharing in climate policy means the sharing of effort for climate mitigation between different parties or countries. In particular it refers to how the effort of emissions reductions is divided (sub-targets) among parties to an overall emissions reduction commitment or target.
Under the European Union's climate legislation, greenhouse gas emissions reductions from economic sectors not covered by the emissions trading scheme (power production and heavy industry) are covered under EU effort-sharing legislation. This includes emissions reductions from sectors like transport, agriculture and domestic heating.

See: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/climat/climate_action.htm the European Commission official page

El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
El Niño is a warm water current which periodically flows along the coast of Ecuador and Peru. It can lead to atypical temperature rises, pushing mean temperature levels up.
The El Niño oceanic event is associated with a fluctuation of the inter-tropical surface pressure pattern and circulation in the Indian and Pacific oceans, called the Southern Oscillation. This coupled atmosphere-ocean phenomenon is collectively known as El Niño-Southern Oscillation, or ENSO. During an El Niño event, the prevailing trade winds weaken and the equatorial counter-current strengthens, causing warm surface waters in the Indonesian area to flow eastward to overlie the cold waters of the Peru current. This event has great impact on the wind, sea surface temperature and precipitation patterns in the tropical Pacific leading to atypical temperature rises. It has climatic effects throughout the Pacific region and in many other parts of the world. The opposite of an El Niño event is called La Niña.

See: http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/tao/elnino/nino-home.html

Electric cars
An electric car is a type of alternative fuel car that utilises electric motors and motor controllers instead of the conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) that is used in standard petroleum-fueled cars. In most cases, electrical power is derived from battery packs carried on board the vehicle. Electric motors have a much greater tank to wheel energy efficient than the standard internal combustion engine.

Embedded emissions (of greenhouse gasses or CO2 equivalent)
'Embedded emissions' refers to the overall emissions that are 'embedded' in a product, material or services, when the whole process (including manufacturing, packaging and transporting) is taken into account. This is also referred to as a 'life-cycle approach'.

Embodied energy
Embodied energy - sometimes referred to as 'embedded energy' - is the energy used (and therefore the CO₂ emissions) in manufacturing, packaging and transporting a product, material or service. This is also referred to as a 'life-cycle approach'.

Emissions
The release of a substance (usually a gas and specifically a greenhouse gas when referring to the subject of climate change) into the atmosphere.

Emissions cap
A mandated restraint in a scheduled timeframe that puts a “ceiling” on the total amount of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions that can be released into the atmosphere. This can be measured as gross emissions or as net emissions (emissions minus gases that are sequestered).

Emissions performance standard or emissions limit
A standard setting out a level of emissions that may not be exceeded. These standards/limits are typically applied to products or installations that emit pollutants and are expressed in the relevant measurement units. For example, an emissions performance standard for a power plant would be expressed in grams of CO2 equivalent per kilowatt hour, whereas an emissions limit for a car would be expressed in grams of CO2 equivalent per kilometre/mile.

Emissions permit
An emissions permit is used in emission trading schemes (see emissions trading), with a permit or credit giving the owner the right to emit a specified amount of the regulated pollutant (typically one tonne of CO2).

Emissions trading scheme
An emissions trading scheme is a cap-and-trade instrument, which is aimed at regulating the amount of pollution emitted into the atmosphere. The government or relevant authority sets a cap on pollution, limiting the amount that companies or other groups are allowed to release. The government or relevant authority then issues credits, which allow these companies or other groups to each pollute a certain amount as long as the aggregate pollution equals less than the set cap. Entities that can cheaply reduce pollution sell permits to those that cannot easily afford to reduce pollution. The entities that sell the permits are rewarded while those that purchase permits must pay for their negative impact. Applied to climate change, this system theoretically reduces carbon emissions at the lowest total cost.
The EU emissions trading scheme is currently the largest functioning example of an emissions trading scheme. It was set up by the European Union as part of a series of measures designed to meet the EU's emissions reduction targets under the Kyoto Protocol and started operation at the beginning of 2005. The third phase of the emissions trading scheme, which has been approved by EU governments and the European parliament, will extend the scheme beyond the term of the Kyoto Protocol i.e. post-2012.

See: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/climat/emission/index_en.htm the European Commission official page

http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/mechanisms/emissions_trading/items/2731.php the UNFCCC page on emissions trading under the Kyoto Protocol

Enhanced oil recovery
Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) is a generic term for techniques for increasing the amount of oil that can be extracted from an oil field. This can be done by various techniques, including the injection of gas or liquids into an oil field to force residual oil out. The oil industry has tried to claim that this could be used as a means of carbon capture and storage (CCS). Apart from the fact that this would conflict with the supposed purpose of CCS (i.e. as a tool in climate policy), there are also major concerns about the long-term gas retention of this method. Enhanced oil recovery is also called improved oil recovery or tertiary recovery (as opposed to primary and secondary recovery).

European Climate change programme - ECCP
Multi-stakeholder programme set up by the European Commission with the goal of identifying and developing measures and elements of an EU strategy on climate change in the context of its commitments under the UNFCCC.

See: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/climat/eccp.htm European Commission official page

Externalities or external costs
An economic term used to describe the by-products of activities that affect the well-being of people or damage the environment, where those impacts are not reflected in market prices. For example, the external costs of driving a car include pollution, noise pollution, accidents and other impacts on the public health system. These costs are not factored into the price of purchasing and operating a car but are borne by the society and economy at large.

F

Feed-in tariffs
A concept associated with energy supply systems, whereby the relevant authorities are obliged to buy energy (usually electricity) produced from a certain source at a guaranteed price (often above the market price). Feed-in tariffs are aimed at supporting and promoting newer energy technologies in their initial start-up phases, before they achieve grid parity, with a view to ensuring they can compete with conventional and incumbent energy technologies. Feed-in tariffs have been particularly effective in promoting electricity from renewable sources in Germany.

See: http://www.bmu.de/files/english/renewable_energy/downloads/application/pdf/langfassung_einspeisesysteme_en.pdf a comparison of feed-in tariffs by the Fraunhofer Institute

Food miles
'Food miles' is a term used to denote the embedded mileage associated with a food product i.e. how far a product (or its ingredients) has travelled to get to the final point of consumption. The transport of food over longer distances, particularly by more polluting modes like road and air, results in the emission of large amounts of greenhouse gases.

Fossil fuels
Fuels from fossil sources (carbons or hydrocarbons like oil, coal, natural gas or their by-products) found in and extracted from the earth's crust. These are formed by the natural processing of organic matter over the course of millions of years. Burning fossils fuels is the main source of primary energy used around the world. This results in the emission of billions of tonnes of greenhouse gases (mainly carbon dioxide) per year, which cannot be absorbed by natural processes.

Fuel cell
A fuel cell is a device or an electrochemical engine with no moving parts that converts the chemical energy of a fuel (such as hydrogen) and an oxidant (such as oxygen) directly into electricity. The principal components of a fuel cell are catalytically activated electrodes for the fuel (anode) and the oxidant (cathode) and an electrolyte to conduct ions between the two electrodes, thus producing electricity.

G

Gas-fired station
A gas-fired station converts the heat of gas combustion into electricity, for instance through a steam turbine. Electricity generation through gas combustion has a carbon footprint of 400g CO2/kWh, compared to 5g CO2/kWh for wind or 1000g CO2/kWh for coal.

Gas-guzzler
Pejorative term used to describe a car or passenger vehicle with very low fuel efficiency. There is a recent tendency for many car manufacturers to produce and market ever larger cars, which are more fuel inefficient and polluting. This has contributed to the growth in greenhouse gas emissions from transport, even in countries where emissions from other sectors have decreased.

See: - Climate Denial blog, George Marshall, Climate Outreach Information Network (COIN) -
http://climatedenial.org/2008/08/18/five-more-appalling-climate-denial-ads/, a video that explains it all...

General circulation models (GCM)
GCMs are global, three-dimensional computer models of the climate system which can be used to simulate human-induced climate change. GCMs are highly complex and they represent the effects of such factors as reflective and absorptive properties of atmospheric water vapor, greenhouse gas concentrations, clouds, annual and daily solar heating, ocean temperatures and ice boundaries. The most recent GCMs include global representations of the atmosphere, oceans, and land surface. See climate modelling.

See:http://www.giss.nasa.gov/research/modeling/gcms.html Goddart Institute for Space Studies

Geoengineering
Geoengineering is the deliberate modification of a planet's environment by the addition or subtraction of a resource or energy input on a massive scale. Proposed geoengineering projects on Earth, often introduced as a means of reversing or arresting the onset of climate change, have included space mirrors, sulphur-spraying in the stratosphere, cloud seeding, oceanic fertilisation and oceanic carbon sequestration.

http://blogs.nature.com/news/thegreatbeyond/2008/10/geoengineering_round_up.html for comparisons between different geoengineering strategies

Geothermal energy
Geothermal energy is natural heat from within the earth, captured for production of electric power, space heating or industrial steam.
The heat is tapped from the inner core of the earth where molten rock heats the water just below the surface of the earth, or from the sun's energy trapped just below the earth's surface. This energy, hot water or steam can then be distributed to heat buildings or drive turbines for the production of electricity.

Gigawatt (GW)
One thousand megawatts (1,000 MW) or one million kilowatts (1,000,000 kW) or one billion watts (1,000,000,000 watts) of electricity. A watt is the standard unit of measure for electricity. It is equal to one joule of energy per second and measures the rate of energy conversion.

Gigawatt-hour (GWh)
A unit of energy equivalent to one million kilowatt-hours, which is used to express large volumes of energy delivered by power plants.

Global dimming
Global dimming is the gradual reduction in the amount of global direct irradiance at the Earth's surface. It was observed for several decades after the start of systematic measurements in the 1950s. The effect varies by location, but worldwide it has been estimated to be of the order of a 4% reduction over the three decades from 1960–1990. However, since 1990, the trend has reversed. Global dimming creates a cooling effect that may have partially masked the effect of greenhouse gases on global warming.

Global warming
Global warming is the increase in the average temperature of the Earth's near-surface air and the oceans since the mid-twentieth century and its projected continuation.

Global warming potential (GWP)
An index, describing the radiative characteristics of greenhouse gases, that represents the combined effect of the differing times these gases remain in the atmosphere and their relative effectiveness in absorbing outgoing infrared radiation. This index approximates the time-integrated warming effect of a unit mass of a given greenhouse gas in today's atmosphere, relative to that of carbon dioxide.

Greenhouse effect
Greenhouse gases effectively absorb infrared radiation, emitted by the Earth's surface, by the atmosphere itself due to the same gases, and by clouds. Atmospheric radiation is emitted to all sides, including downward to the Earth's surface. Thus greenhouse gases trap heat within the surface-troposphere system. This is called the natural greenhouse effect.
An increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases leads to an increased infrared opacity of the atmosphere, and therefore to an effective radiation into space from a higher altitude at a lower temperature. This causes a radiative forcing, an imbalance that can only be compensated for by an increase of the temperature of the surface-troposphere system. This is the enhanced greenhouse effect.

See: http://unfccc.int/essential_background/feeling_the_heat/items/2903.php UNFCCC official page

graphic: http://maps.grida.no/go/graphic/greenhouse-effect

Greenhouse gas
Greenhouse gases are those gaseous constituents of the atmosphere, both natural and anthropogenic, that absorb and emit radiation at specific wavelengths within the spectrum of infrared radiation emitted by the Earth's surface, the atmosphere and clouds. This property causes the greenhouse effect. Water vapour (H₂O), carbon dioxide (CO₂), nitrous oxide (N₂O), methane (CH₄) and ozone (O₃) are the primary greenhouse gases in the Earth's atmosphere. There are also a number of entirely manmade greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, such as the halocarbons and other chlorine and bromine containing substances.
The causal role of greenhouse gases in climate change has led to attempts to reduce their emission through anthropogenic activities. The Kyoto Protocol, under the UNFCCC, represented the first international attempt to do this. Besides CO₂, N₂O and CH₄, the Kyoto Protocol deals with the greenhouse gases sulphur hexafluoride (SF₆), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and perfluorocarbons (PFCs).

Gulf stream
The Gulf Stream, together with its northern extension towards Europe, the North Atlantic Drift, is a powerful, warm, and swift Atlantic Ocean current. It originates in the Gulf of Mexico, exits through the Strait of Florida, and follows the eastern coastlines of the United States and Newfoundland before crossing the Atlantic Ocean. At about 30°W, 40°N, it splits in two, with the northern stream crossing to northern Europe and the southern stream recirculating off West Africa. The Gulf Stream influences the climate of the east coast of North America from Florida to Newfoundland, and the west coast of Europe.

H

Hot air
Also called 'paper credits', the term refers to carbon credits for emission reductions that occurred without any deliberate action. The prime example being the carbon credits arising under the Kyoto protocol in Russia, the Ukraine and other former Soviet Union countries, where the collapse of Soviet-era industry in the 1990s has led emissions to fall well below 1990 levels, the base year for reduction calculations, without the implementation of any climate-related measures.

Hybrid-electric engine
A hybrid-electric vehicle (HEV) is a hybrid vehicle which combines a conventional propulsion system (typically a petroleum-driven combustion engine) with a rechargeable energy storage system (electric). Hybrid vehicles aim to achieve better fuel efficiency/economy than conventional vehicles. The combination of the two overcomes the problems that solely electric motors encounter with range and storage capacity in the absence of an appropriate widespread infrastructure for electric vehicles.

Hydroelectric power
Hydropower (or hydroelectric power) is the generation of electricity using the power of falling water to drive turbines.

International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)
The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) is an international organisation based in Vienna that seeks to promote the peaceful use of nuclear energy and to inhibit its use for military purposes. Though established independently of the United Nations under its own international treaty (the IAEA Statute), the IAEA reports to both the General Assembly and the Security Council. The IAEA has been criticised for pushing the nuclear power agenda and for playing down real concerns, notably on the scale of the Chernobyl disaster in 1986.

See: http://www.iaea.org/

I

Ice sheet
A mass of land ice which is sufficiently deep to cover most of the underlying bedrock topography, so that its shape is mainly determined by its internal dynamics (the flow of the ice as it deforms internally and slides at its base). An ice sheet flows outwards from a high central plateau with a small average surface slope. There are only two large ice sheets in the modern world, on Greenland and Antarctica, the Antarctic ice sheet being divided into East and West by the Transantarctic Mountains.

International Energy Agency (IEA)
The International Energy Agency (IEA) is a Paris-based intergovernmental organisation founded by the OECD in 1974 in the wake of the oil crisis. The IEA was initially dedicated to preventing disruptions in the supply of oil, as well as acting as an information source on the international oil market and other energy sectors. Recently, it has expanded its mandate to include energy security, economic development, and environmental protection. The latter has focused on mitigating climate change. Its focus on conventional fuel sources has led to criticisms that it promotes a fossil fuel agenda. It has tended to take a highly optimistic perspective on the projected availability and role of fossil fuels (notably oil) in our energy systems and, as a result, downplays the potential of alternative energy sources.

See: http://www.iea.org/

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
The IPCC was established jointly by the United Nations Environment Programme and the World Meteorological Organization in 1988. The purpose of the IPCC is to assess information in the scientific and technical literature related to all significant components of the issue of climate change.
The IPCC draws upon hundreds of the world's expert scientists as authors and thousands as expert reviewers. Leading experts on climate change and environmental, social, and economic sciences from some 60 nations have helped the IPCC to prepare periodic assessments of the scientific underpinnings for understanding global climate change and its consequences.
The IPCC is regarded as the official advisory body to the world's governments on climate change science, with its reports informing discussions and negotiations under the UNFCCC. The fourth assessment report of the IPCC in 2007 is the most recent major report, which is used as the scientific consensus or benchmark for international policy-making.

The IPCC was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2007, together with US politician Al Gore, for their work on climate change.

See: http://www.ipcc.ch/

J

Joint Implementation (JI)
Joint Implementation is one of the three market mechanisms established by the Kyoto Protocol. It gives richer countries the opportunity to achieve their emission reduction goals, formulated in the Kyoto Protocol, by financing emissions reduction projects for poorer countries that have also signed the treaty. More specifically, JI occurs when an industrialised (Annex I) country invests in an emissions reduction or sink enhancement project in a transition country (Annex B defines economies in transition) to earn emission reduction units (ERUs).

See: http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/mechanisms/joint_implementation/items/1674.php UNFCCC official page

K

Kerosene (aviation fuel)
The main type of fuel used by jet-propelled airlines. It is clear in colour and used for its enhanced performance at the colder temperatures to which airlines are exposed. Its use in international transportation has meant it is usually exempt from taxation unlike standard fuels.

Kilowatt
A kilowatt is 1,000 watts. A watt is the standard unit of measure for electricity. It is equal to one joule of energy per second and measures the rate of energy conversion. Kilowatt is the measure typically used to measure the power output of engines or larger energy-using products.

Kyoto mechanisms
The Kyoto Protocol creates three market-based mechanisms (also known as flexible mechanisms) that have the potential to help countries reduce the cost of meeting their emissions reduction targets. These mechanisms are Emissions Trading, Joint Implementation, and the Clean Development Mechanisms.

See: http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/mechanisms/items/1673.php UNFCCC official page

Kyoto Protocol
An international agreement adopted in December 1997 in Kyoto, Japan. The Protocol sets binding emission targets for developed countries that would reduce their emissions on average 5.2 percent below 1990 levels. Under the Kyoto Protocol, the European Union was tasked with reducing its emissions by 8% over the period based on 1990 levels - this applies to the EU15 i.e. the fifteen EU members before the most recent enlargements from 2004 on. The Kyoto Protocol implementation runs over the period from 2008-12.

See: - UNFCCC - http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/items/2830.php

L

La Niña
La Niña is the name for the cold phase of the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (an atmospheric ocean phenomenon), during which the cold pool in the eastern Pacific intensifies and the trade winds strengthen. It can lead to atypical temperature drops, pushing mean temperature levels down. This 'noise' in mean temperature records can distort a general warming trend.

Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)
Natural gas that has been condensed to a liquid, typically by cryogenically cooling the gas to minus 327.2 degrees Fahrenheit (below zero). LNG takes up about 1/600th of the volume of natural gas at a stove burner tip and is hence an ideal form for the storage or transportation of the substance. It avoids the need to build complex infrastructure for piping gas from one source to another and enables for easier storage and stock-piling.

Liquid petroleum gas
Liquid (or 'liquefied') petroleum gas (LPG) is usually derived from fossil fuel sources. A mixture of butane, propane and other light hydrocarbons, it is produced either as a by-product of oil refining or from natural gas fields. Typically used as a fuel in heating appliances or vehicles. It results in lower CO₂emissions than petrol when used to power a vehicle.

Load
An end-use device or an end-use customer that consumes power. Load should not be confused with demand, which is the measure of power that a load receives or requires.

Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry (LULUCF)
A greenhouse gas inventory sector that covers emissions and removals of greenhouse gases resulting from direct human-induced land use, land-use change and forestry activities i.e. a range of activities which can act either as carbon sinks or as emission sources. LULUCF has impacts on the global carbon cycle and as such these activities can add or remove carbon dioxide (or, more generally, carbon) from the atmosphere, contributing to climate change. The IPCC states that from 1850 to 1998, about 136 (+ 55) Gigatonnes of carbon has been emitted as a result of land-use change, predominantly from forest ecosystems. For comparison, 270 (+ 30) Gigatonnes carbon has been emitted as carbon dioxide equivalent into the atmosphere from fossil fuel burning and cement production.

See: http://unfccc.int/methods_and_science/lulucf/items/1084.php UNFCCC official page

Light emitting diode (LED) - light bulb
LED light bulbs are (like CFL bulbs) a different technology to incandescent light bulbs for producing light. LED bulbs are much more efficient than traditional incandescent bulbs (which only convert 5% of their energy input into light, wasting the rest) - using only around 7% of the electricity used by an incandescent bulb. They are also more efficient than CFL bulbs. While current LED bulbs on the market are more expensive, they have a life of up to 50,000 hours, compared with 12,000 for CFL bulbs and 1,000 for incandescent bulbs. It is expected that, as the demand for LED bulbs increases and the technology becomes more mainstream, the price will decrease.

Megawatt (MW)
One megawatt is 1,000 kilowatts or 1 million watts. A watt is the standard unit of measure for electricity. It is equal to one joule of energy per second and measures the rate of energy conversion. Megawatts are used to measure energy produce or consumed on a large scale - for example from power plants.

M

Methane
A hydrocarbon that is a greenhouse gas with a global warming potential most recently estimated at 21-23 times that of carbon dioxide (CO2) - around 25 Kg CO₂e over a 100-year period. Methane is produced through anaerobic (without oxygen) decomposition of waste in landfills, animal digestion, decomposition of animal wastes, production and distribution of natural gas and petroleum, coal production, and incomplete fossil fuel combustion.

Methane clathrates
Methane clathrate, also called methane hydrate or methane ice, is a solid form of water that contains a large amount of methane within its crystal structure (a clathrate hydrate). Originally thought to occur only in the outer regions of the Solar System where temperatures are low and water ice is common, significant deposits of methane clathrate have been found under sediments on the ocean floors of Earth. The potential release of this methane through ice melt is a major concern in the context of global warming and one of the major positive feedbacks.

Microgeneration
Microgeneration is small-scale home production of electricity and heat using technology that produces little or no CO₂. Common examples include solar panels and wind turbines. Where successful, people can meet their own energy needs and also sell excess energy back to the grid.

N

Nitrous oxide (NOx)
A powerful greenhouse gas with a global warming potential of around 300 times that of carbon dioxide (CO₂). Major sources of nitrous oxide include soil cultivation practices, especially the use of commercial and organic fertilizers, fossil fuel combustion, nitric acid production, and biomass burning. Nitrogen oxides are also produced in the emissions of vehicle exhausts and from power stations.

Negative feedback
A process that results in a reduction in the response of a system to an external influence. For example, increased plant productivity in response to global warming would be a negative feedback on warming, because the additional growth would act as a sink CO₂, reducing the atmospheric CO₂ concentration.

Nuclear energy
Power obtained by splitting heavy atoms (fission) or joining light atoms (fusion). A nuclear energy plant uses a controlled atomic chain reaction to produce heat. The heat is used to make steam run conventional turbine generators.

Conventional nuclear power plants are based on nuclear fission technology i.e. the release of energy caused by the splitting of an atom's nucleus. There are many problems associated with this technology, not least the potential for radiation contamination over the nuclear fuel cycle. Nuclear waste remains radioactive for long periods and no satisfactory solutions have been found for disposal of this waste. The reprocessing of spent nuclear fuel also leads to radioactive by-products. This risk of nuclear accidents and widespread contamination were brought home by the Chernobyl disaster. The overlaps between civilian and military nuclear technology also raise concerns about nuclear weapons proliferation.
Nuclear fusion is based on the release of energy that occurs when atoms are combined under the most extreme heat and pressure. It is a power source that could potentially be used for commercial power production purposes. However, despite decades of research, its commercial application remains decades off according to its own researchers.

http://royalsociety.org/document.asp?id=3249

O

Ocean acidification
Ocean acidification is the name given to the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth's oceans, caused by their uptake of anthropogenic carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Offsetting, or carbon offsetting, refers to the (highly contentious) principle that a company or individual can mitigate or even entirely neutralise the effects of their CO2 emissions by investing in programmes that promote emissions reductions (typically in developing countries where it is cheaper to deliver these reductions).
It implies buying credits in (or part-funding) a project that will lead to the prevention or removal of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere (for example, planting trees or building renewable energy power stations to avoid the construction of coal ones). Carbon offsetting can be used by individuals, companies or governments. Instead of actually delivering emissions reductions required of them (for example under legislation), the purchaser can offset the required reductions by buying credits in emissions reductions projects elsewhere. The UNFCCC Kyoto Protocol included two offsetting instruments: the Clean Development Mechanism and Joint Implementation projects.

See: http://royalsociety.org/document.asp?id=3249

Offset
Offsetting, or carbon offsetting, refers to the (highly contentious) principle that a company or individual can mitigate or even entirely neutralise the effects of their CO₂ emissions by investing in programmes that promote emissions reductions (typically in developing countries where it is cheaper to deliver these reductions).

It implies buying credits in (or part-funding) a project that will lead to the prevention or removal of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere (for example, planting trees or building renewable energy power stations to avoid the construction of coal ones). Carbon offsetting can be used by individuals, companies or governments. Instead of actually delivering emissions reductions required of them (for example under legislation), the purchaser can offset the required reductions by buying credits in emissions reductions projects elsewhere. The UNFCCC Kyoto Protocol included two offsetting instruments: the Clean Development Mechanism and Joint Implementation projects.

Oil
Oil - also called petroleum - is a liquid fossil fuel. It is one of the main primary energy sources, notably in transport where over 95% of the fuel is petroleum based (as a result of the dominance of the internal combustion engine). It is also used for the production of plastics. The burning of oil is a major contributor to global warming as it produces large amounts of CO2. Transport accounts for at least 22% of EU greenhouse gas emissions.

Oil sands
Sedimentary rocks containing heavy oil that cannot be extracted by conventional petroleum recovery methods. It is regarded as a non-conventional oil source. The energy-intensive and dirty process for extracting oil from oil sands means oil derived from this source results in significantly more greenhouse gas emissions than conventional oil over its life cycle.

See: http://oilsandstruth.org/tar-sands-101

Oil shale
A type of rock containing organic matter that produces large amounts of oil when heated to high temperatures. It is regarded as a non-conventional oil source. The energy-intensive and dirty process for extracting oil from oil shale means oil derived from this source results in significantly more greenhouse gas emissions than conventional oil over its life cycle.

OPEC
The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries, which was founded in 1960, to unify and coordinate petroleum polices of its members. It has twelve members and functions as a cartel, fixing prices and production volumes.

P

Peak oil
Peak oil is the point in time when the maximum rate of global petroleum extraction is reached, after which the rate of production enters terminal decline. The concept is based on the observed production rates of individual oil wells, and the combined production rate of a field of related oil wells. The aggregate production rate from an oil field over time usually grows exponentially until the rate peaks and then declines—sometimes rapidly—until the field is depleted. Peak oil is often confused with oil depletion; peak oil is the point of maximum production while depletion refers to a period of falling reserves and supply.

Peat
A heterogeneous mixture of partly decomposed organic matter that has accumulated in a water saturated environment over a very long period of time. Peat geologically is considered a very young form of coal and has a heating value of 6,600 Btu/pound in situ. The use of peat as an energy source is controversial not just because of the greenhouse gases emitted through its combustion. Peat is extracted from wetlands. Not only can carbon be released through the draining of wetlands, many are still in the process of absorbing carbon from the atmosphere. So, the use of peat as an energy source has a double or triple-negative effect.

Positive feedback
A process that results in an amplification of the response of a system to an external influence. For example, increased atmospheric water vapor in response to global warming would be a positive feedback on warming, because water vapor is a greenhouse gas. The melting of permafrost through warming, releasing methane (a powerful greenhouse gas) trapped in the permafrost to atmosphere, is another example.

Parts per million (ppm)
Number of parts of a chemical found in one million parts of a particular gas, liquid, or solid. Parts per million is used to describe the proportion of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

Primary energy
Energy carrier found in nature (e.g. solar energy, wood, coal, petroleum, natural gas).

Photovoltaics (PV)
'Photovoltaics' are materials that produce electricity from sunlight. The process for power generation involves photons from sunlight agitating electrons into a higher state of energy, creating electricity. A single photovoltaic cell can be used to power small appliances such as calculators; combined in solar panels they can be used to generate electricity. Most cells are manufactured from silicon. As a technology capitalising on a renewable energy source (solar), it has a low and improving carbon footprint.

Q

R

Radiative forcing
Radiative forcing is the change in the net vertical irradiance (expressed in Watts per square metre: Wm^-2) at the tropopause due to an internal change or a change in the external forcing of the climate system, such as, for example, a change in the concentration of carbon dioxide or the output of the sun. Usually radiative forcing is computed after allowing for stratospheric temperatures to readjust to radiative equilibrium, but with all tropospheric properties held fixed at their unperturbed values. Radiative forcing is called instantaneous if no change in stratospheric temperature is accounted for.

In the context of climate change, the term forcing is restricted to changes in the radiation balance of the surface-troposphere system imposed by external factors, with no changes in stratospheric dynamics, without any surface and tropospheric feedbacks in operation (i.e., no secondary effects induced because of changes in tropospheric motions or its thermodynamic state), and with no dynamically-induced changes in the amount and distribution of atmospheric water (vapour, liquid, and solid forms).

Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD)
The United Nations Collaborative Programme on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Developing Countries (UN-REDD Programme) is a collaboration between the FAO, the UNDP and the UNEP. A multi-donor trust fund was established in July 2008 that allows donors to pool resources and provides funding to activities towards this programme.

Despite the fact that deforestation accounts for around 20% of global greenhouse gas emissions, REDD was not included under the Kyoto Protocol. There is a strong movement to include REDD in a post-2012 international climate agreement, with the clarification that developed countries support for REDD must be in addition to their own emissions reductions efforts.

See: http://unfccc.int/methods_science/redd/items/4531.php UNFCCC official page

Renewable energy
Energy resources that constantly renew themselves or that are regarded as practically inexhaustible. These include solar, wind, geothermal, hydro and some forms of biomass. Other renewable resources currently being developed include tidal power, sea currents and ocean thermal gradients. In addition, these sources typically result in much lower greenhouse gas emissions than conventional sources - many produce almost no emissions after the initial manufacture and installation of the infrastructure.

Reservoir
A component of the climate system, other than the atmosphere, which has the capacity to store, accumulate or release a substance of concern, e.g. carbon, a greenhouse gas or a precursor. Oceans, soils, and forests are examples of reservoirs of carbon. Pool is an equivalent term (note that the definition of pool often includes the atmosphere). The absolute quantity of substance of concerns, held within a reservoir at a specified time, is called the stock.

Response time
The response time or adjustment time is the time needed for the climate system or its components to re-equilibrate to a new state, following a forcing resulting from external and internal processes or feedbacks. It is very different for various components of the climate system. The response time of the troposphere is relatively short, from days to weeks, whereas the stratosphere comes into equilibrium on a time-scale of typically a few months. Due to their large heat capacity, the oceans have a much longer response time, typically decades, but up to centuries or millennia.

S

Secondary energy
An energy carrier which has been produced from primary energy in a conversion process (e.g. electricity, hydrogen, petrol).

Sequestration
The removal of atmospheric CO₂, either through biological processes (e.g. plants and trees), or geological processes through storage of CO₂ in underground reservoirs.

Shipping emissions
Greenhouse gas emissions produced by the shipping sector, which are estimated to account for 4.5% of global emissions (and are the second-fastest rising sector). Many ships run on low grade petroleum-based fuel, which increases the climate-damaging impact of their emissions (like black carbon).

Sink
Any process, activity or mechanism that results in the net removal (and storage) of greenhouse gases, aerosols, or precursors of greenhouse gases from the atmosphere.

Soft mobility
'Soft mobility' implies a transport system designed to reduce oil consumption from transport and, as a consequence, greenhouse gas emissions from transport. It focuses on reducing transport via more energy-intensive or polluting modes. This means promoting public transport, cycling and walking for passenger transport over car and air transport, while shifting freight transport from road to less polluting modes like rail.

Stern report
The Stern report - or the Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change - is a 700-page report, written by economist Lord Nicholas Stern for the UK government, and published in October 2006. It discusses the effect of climate change and global warming on the world economy and concludes that global warming cause the global economy to retract by 20%, but that immediate action to combat it effectively would cost just 1% of global gross domestic product. Lord Stern has since revised the cost of combating climate change upwards to 2% of GDP.

See: http://www.occ.gov.uk/activities/stern.htm Office of climate change

Sulphate aerosols
Particulate matter that consists of compounds of sulphur formed by the interaction of sulphur dioxide and sulphur trioxide with other compounds in the atmosphere. Sulphate aerosols are injected into the atmosphere from the combustion of fossil fuels and the eruption of volcanoes. Recent theory suggests that sulphate aerosols may lower the Earth's temperature by reflecting away solar radiation (negative radiative forcing).

Supplementarity
The Kyoto Protocol does not allow developed (Annex I) countries to meet their emission targets entirely through use of emissions trading and the other Kyoto Mechanisms; use of the 'mechanisms' must be supplemental to domestic actions to limit or reduce their emissions.

Sustainability
Sustainability - whether applied to energy, technology, industry, agriculture or just consumption of resources in general - refers to the concept of using things at a rate that, while meeting our own needs, does not compromise future generations' ability to meet theirs. In environmental terms, a process or industry is unsustainable when it requires natural resources to be used up faster than they can be replenished.

T

Tar sands
Sedimentary rocks containing heavy oil that cannot be extracted by conventional petroleum recovery methods. It is regarded as a non-conventional oil source. The energy-intensive and dirty process for extracting oil from oil shale means oil derived from this source results in significantly more greenhouse gas emissions than conventional oil over its life cycle.

See:http://oilsandstruth.org/tar-sands-101

Technology transfer
In the context of international climate policy, technology transfer refers to the transfer of green technologies (such for energy production or efficiency) to developing countries to help them avoid greenhouse gas emissions. The concept includes not only the transfer of hardware but also of skills and even of intellectual property rights for the technologies.

Thermal expansion
In connection with sea level, this refers to the increase in volume (and decrease in density) that results from warming water. A warming of the ocean leads to an expansion of the ocean volume and hence an increase in sea level.

Thermohaline circulation
Large-scale density-driven circulation in the ocean, caused by differences in temperature and salinity. In the North Atlantic the thermohaline circulation consists of warm surface water flowing northward and cold deep water flowing southward, resulting in a net poleward transport of heat. The surface water sinks in highly restricted sinking regions located in high latitudes.

Tidal power
Energy obtained by using the motion of the tides to run water turbines that drive electric generators.

Transformer
A device, which through electromagnetic induction but without the use of moving parts, transforms alternating or intermittent electric energy in one circuit into energy of similar type in another circuit, commonly with altered values of voltage and current.

U

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC)
The Convention was adopted on 9 May 1992 in New York and signed at the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro by more than 150 countries and the European Community - it currently counts 192 members. Its ultimate objective is the "stabilisation of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system". It contains commitments for all Parties. The convention entered into force in March 1994.

See: http://unfccc.int/2860.php UNFCCC official Kyoto Protocol page

V

W

Wattß
A watt is the standard unit of measure for electricity. It is equal to one joule of energy per second and measures the rate
of energy conversion.

Wind power
Wind power is the conversion of wind energy into a useful form, such as electricity, using wind turbines. Onshore wind generates electricity by placing the wind turbines on land sites, for offshore wind the turbines are located in the sea. The advantages of offshore wind farms include the much larger scale (and much greater potential), however offshore wind requires the electricity to be transported over greater distances.

See:http://www.ewea.org

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